Internationalisation of Higher Education and Global Mobility

Contents [Please click on author name for summary]

Preface

Notwithstanding cross-border tensions and one-way imperial projects, and the fact the world continues to be ordered as a zero-sum configuration of nation-states, processes of globalisation seem to be unstoppable. We are moving closer towards a single world society, a momentous historical development. Global mobility of persons is ever growing. Ideas move synchronously from one institution to the next. For the globally connected elite in the major cities, a world society already exists. More broadly, half of the world’s population is now engaged in mobile phone networks, a technical precondition for universal society. One polity is much further off. Globalisation is uneven. Some nations and cities are more engaged than others. But none can remain outside the process.

   Nowhere are global convergence and partial integration more apparent than in higher education and knowledge. A single system of networked research universities has emerged, subject to global mapping, comparison and ranking, though other parts of education are more solely localised and mostly remain decoupled from global circuits. Research universities remain embedded in localities while subject at the same time to both national policy, financing and regulation, and also global linkages, movements and comparisons.

   It is sometimes suggested that globalisation may have peaked and a more separated higher education world may reassert, but this is wishful nostalgia. Consider what have been the major developments affecting national education systems in the last decade or so. There have been four such developments; and all are changes occurring at the global level: through global comparisons, or global systems, or shifts in the global balance of power in education and science.

   First, there is the growing impact on policy and practice in secondary schooling, of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Programme for International Student Assessments (PISA) of the educational achievement of 15-year-olds, which has become the principal performance indicator for school-level education bureaucrats and ministers. Not all countries are focused on lifting their PISA scores, but many are. Some such as South Korea have implemented major programs focused specifically on lifting reading, science or mathematics achievement. There is intense international interest in systems such as Finland, Korea and Shanghai that are doing especially well in PISA. This is leading to a spate of policy borrowing.

   Second, there is the rise and rise of university rankings, especially research rankings. Global university rankings were a minor item when the first Shanghai Jiao Tong University top 500 league table was issued in 2003. They have ballooned in importance and are now front-page news in many countries. Research persistently shows that, despite the shortcomings of this form of cross-border comparison, rankings are highly influential with families and students in decisions about international education. They also affect the esteem (and often the revenue) given to universities by governments, industry and philanthropy, and shape patterns in the cross-border movements of academic faculty. Global rankings inexorably push governments and universities alike towards the model of the comprehensive Anglo-American science university that makes up the ranking template. They drive mergers designed to secure critical mass and offshore recruitment designed to lift citation rates. University ranking has become perhaps the chief performance indicator for ministers of higher education, and university presidents/rectors/vice-chancellors.

   Third, there is the advent of Mass Open Online Course (MOOC) programs in September 2011 at Stanford University. Through the for-profit corporations Coursera and Udacity at Stanford, and edX run by MIT and Harvard, MOOC offerings and enrolments have grown extraordinarily rapidly. It is already apparent that this is a major game-changer in worldwide higher education. MOOCS offer programs from global brand universities that feature leading world experts. Students’ work is assessed using multiple-choice online software, and the minority of students who complete the program successfully receive certification at its end. MOOCS also provide scope for social networking between students. As a free platform with user-navigated content and social interaction, they are perfectly attuned to the Web, unlike other online prototypes that tend to replicate the bricks and mortar university in a virtual form. As free and certified programs from prestigious universities, they are an attractive alternative to any program in any mode that charges tuition fees. MOOCs may radically reduce the average cost of teaching, lower the number of academic faculty in many countries and weaken the position of universities that are prestigious at national level but left in the shade by the global giants. MOOCs also promise to further increase the global power and authority of the leading US universities, thus compounding the normalising effects of rankings. Both trends push us in the direction of greater global standardisation.

   Finally, consider the growing weight of higher education and science in East Asia and Singapore. There used to be two major zones in worldwide higher education and science: North America, and Western Europe and the United Kingdom (UK). After 1970 Japan was added as the outrider. Now there are three such zones. Already the Post-Confucian systems in East Asia – China, Hong Kong SAR, Taiwan, South Korea and of course Japan – invest as much in R&D as do the whole of Europe and the UK. Published journal papers are increasing by 17% a year in China and already the total paper output in that country is half the level of the United States. Quality (as measured by citation rates) lags behind quantity but is improving rapidly. Already China produces more than 10% of the world’s most-cited top 1% papers in both engineering and chemistry. Science output in Korea, Singapore and Taiwan is also growing rapidly. World-class universities are advancing in all these systems. These outputs reflect the investments of five to ten years ago and, given that funding of the leading universities continues to increase, the rise of Asian science will continue. In turn this ensures that universities in the East will attract ever more talent from all over the world. In a radical transformation of the Atlantic and European domination of the last three centuries, in future much of the world’s knowledge will come from East Asia. The rise of higher education in East Asia, amid dynamic modernising economies, is leading to a more plural world in which the cultural mix will be more diverse. MOOCs and rankings assert American domination. This process of pluralisation is working in the opposite direction. There are also signs that universities in parts of western Europe are becoming stronger in relative terms.

   These are the four headline developments – PISA comparisons, global university rankings, MOOCs and the rise of new higher education powers – but there are many more signs of internationalisation and globalisation discussed in this book. Mobility and knowledge convergence affect universities and their personnel everywhere. All non-English-speaking nations are caught up in the new hegemony of English-language science and of the American models of universities and systems. All face the same tensions between global pluralisation and standardisation, tensions that are differently (and differentially) manifest in every national and local case.

   Internationalisation of Higher Education and Global Mobility is a fine collection that provides an unparalleled insight into these different aspects of globalisation in higher education. The book tracks the main trends through different spatial lenses: in terms of the world as a whole, in terms of the main regions and particular national and institutional sites, and in terms of the implications for cross-border relations of power and for social inclusion. Several chapters also rework our conventional tools of interpretation, particularly in relation to mobility of persons and of educational institutions and programs. The chapters in this book will deepen the scholarship of international higher education and guide us towards stronger empirical research projects in future.

SIMON MARGINSON

Contributors

Rose Amazan is a lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney. Her research and teaching is in the area of comparative education and development studies. She has conducted research on the Ethiopian skilled diaspora with a strong focus on skilled female diasporas. Her research experience spreads across themes of education and belonging, skilled migration, diaspora mobility, knowledge transfer, female skilled migration/mobility and knowledge. She is currently working on a research project looking into the impact of AusAID scholarships on development in sub-Saharan Africa.

Robert F. Arnove works in the field of comparative and international education. He has been the lead co-editor of major textbooks in this field over the past 30 years. A major focus of much of his scholarship has been on educational and social change. His most recent single-authored book, Talent Abounds, explores the role of master teachers in cultivating peak performance in the arts and athletics. Although his principal region of interest has been Latin America and the Caribbean, he also has worked in China, India and Africa, as well as in several European countries.

Angeline M. Barrett is a lecturer in education in the Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol. She has conducted research in sub-Saharan Africa on teacher professionalism, social justice perspectives on education quality, capacity-building in higher education, and language and teaching. She is currently associate editor of the International Journal of Educational Development.

Jos Beelen is a researcher and consultant on internationalisation of the curriculum at the Centre for Applied Research on Economics and Management at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences. He is chair of the Special Interest Group Internationalisation at Home of the European Association for International Education and Visiting Fellow at Leeds Metropolitan University’s Centre for Academic Practice and Research in Internationalisation. He is currently doing research into the implementation of the international dimension into higher education curricula, in cooperation with researchers from Europe and Australia.

Rahul Choudaha is Director of Research and Strategic Development at World Education Services (WES) in New York. At WES, a non-profit with over 40 years’ expertise in international education research and evaluation, he leads advisory services for higher education institutions (wes.org/RAS) and international students (WESStudentAdvisor.org). Dr Choudaha is passionate about leveraging research to uncover strategic insights that can help institutions develop and implement internationalisation plans in an inherently complex, competitive and changing environment of global higher education. He specialises in student mobility trends with implications for enrolment management and transnational education strategies. Dr Choudaha is an Editorial Board member of the Journal of Studies in International Education and a recipient of the Tony Adams Award for Excellence in Research by the European Association of International Education. He has presented in nearly 75 sessions at professional conferences. He earned a doctorate in higher education from the University of Denver, a Master’s degree in management and a Bachelor of Engineering degree from India. He also blogs as DrEducation.com and tweets @DrEducationBlog.

Emily Crawford is an Assistant Professor in Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis. She earned her doctorate in educational theory and policy with a minor in comparative and international education from Penn State University, where she focused on issues affecting educational equity for undocumented students. Her research interests include international immigration and education policy, looking at how educational leaders and teachers advocate for vulnerable students’ access to education, and how education policy intersects with educators’ professional and personal ethical codes.

Michael Crossley, AcSS, is Professor of Comparative and International Education, Director of the Research Centre for International and Comparative Studies at the Graduate School of Education, Director of the Doctor of Education Programme and Director of the Education in Small States Research Group (www.smallstates.net), University of Bristol, UK. He is a former editor of the journal Comparative Education and former chair of the British Association for International and Comparative Education. Key research interests relate to: theoretical and methodological scholarship on the future of comparative and international education; the international transfer of educational policy and practice; educational research capacity and international development cooperation: and educational development in small states.

Joan Dassin was the founding Executive Director of the Ford Foundation International Fellowships Program (IFP), responsible for developing IFP’s original design and guiding its implementation in 22 participating countries from 2000 13. In June 2011, she received the Marita Houlihan Award for Distinguished Contributions to International Education (NAFSA: Association of International Educators). She currently holds positions as Senior Associate Member, St Antony’s College, and Visiting Research Associate, Centre for Latin American Studies, University of Oxford. Her research interests include access and equity in international higher and education reform and social mobility in Latin America. She has published articles in the Academic Cooperation Association Papers on International Cooperation, the Chronicle of Higher Education and Inside Higher Education. She recently collaborated on an edited volume entitled Origins, Journeys and Returns: social justice in international higher education (Social Science Research Council, 2009). She holds a PhD from Stanford University in modern thought and literature.

Darla K. Deardorff is a research scholar at Duke University, as well as Executive Director of the Association of International Education Administrators, a national professional organisation headquartered at Duke University. Founder of ICC Global, a global research network on intercultural competence, she has lived, taught and worked in Germany, Japan and Switzerland and has taught at numerous universities including Harvard University’s Future of Learning Institute. She has published widely on intercultural and international education topics, including as editor of The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence (Sage, 2009), and is regularly invited to speak and consult around the world on these topics. Other recent books include lead editor of The Sage Handbook of International Higher Education (Sage, 2012) and co-author of Building Cultural Competence (Stylus, 2012).

Hans De Wit is Director of the Centre for Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI) at the Università Cattolica Sacro Cuore in Milan, Italy, and Professor of Internationalisation of Higher Education at the School of Economics and Management of the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences. He is also Research Associate at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. He is the founding editor of the Journal of Studies in International Education (Association for Studies in International Education/SAGE publishers). His latest book is Darla Deardorff, Hans de Wit, John D. Heyl and Tony Adams (Eds) (2012) The SAGE Handbook on International Higher Education. He publishes a monthly blog in University World News on internationalisation of higher education (http://www.universityworldnews.com). He has (co-)written several other books and articles on international education and is actively involved in assessment and consultancy in international education for organisations like the European Commission, UNESCO, World Bank and IMHE/OECD. In 2005 06, he was a New Century Scholar of the Fulbright Program Higher Education in the 21st Century, and in 1995 and 2006 a visiting scholar in the USA and in 2002 in Australia. Hans de Wit is founding member and past president of the European Association for International Education (EAIE). Currently, he is a member of the Board of Trustees of World Education Services (New York), member of the ESL TOEFL Board. He is also a jury member for several awards, such as the Tony Adams Scholarship Awards, the Internationalization through Technology Award of the American Council on Education and SUNY COIL, and the IEASA Awards Committee for Excellence in Internationalisation.

Jürgen Enders is Professor at the School of Education at the University of Southampton, UK, having previously worked as the Director of the Center for Higher Education Policy Studies in the Netherlands. His research interests are in the areas of the political sociology of higher education, research and innovation; the governance and management of higher education; organisational change in higher education; the student experience, employability and graduate careers; and the academic profession. He is elected member of the Academia Europaea and of the German Academe of Science and Engineering; and member of advisory committees to the Higher Education Funding Council in England and the German Ministries for Education. He has written and (co)-edited 14 books and published more than 100 articles in books and journals on higher education.

Titanji Peter Fon is Associate Professor in Leadership in Schooling and presently serving as Vice-Dean in charge of Studies and Students’ Affairs in the Faculty of Education, University of Buea, Cameroon. His research interests are in educational policy and implementation, institutional leadership, school culture, governance and equity issues in education. He is also interested in the changing environments of educational organisations and leadership implications. He teaches in the areas of sociology of education and educational administration, planning and policy.

Jonathan Z. Friedman is a PhD candidate in international education in the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development at New York University. His research interests include the sociologies of education, knowledge, nationalism and globalisation. Since 2010, Jonathan has served as a research assistant on a multi-year project looking at the production of knowledge on world regions in the American university, housed at the US Social Science Research Council. He is currently focusing on a comparative study of university administrators’ perspectives on internationalization at elite and mass institutions in the US and Britain.

Jürgen Henze has been Professor of Comparative Education at Humboldt University of Berlin since 1993. His research expertise is in Asian education with special reference to Chinese education. His main interest in teaching and research is on modernisation and educational developments in East Asia, the theory and practice of cultural sensitivity (training), as well as non-Western approaches of intercultural communication and competence formation.

Anne Hickling-Hudson specialises in cross-cultural, comparative and international education in Australia’s Queensland University of Technology. Now retired, she continues as Professor of Education in an adjunct capacity. Born and raised in Jamaica, Anne was educated at the Universities of the West Indies and of Hong Kong, and gained her PhD at the University of Queensland in Australia. Her career as a teacher, teacher educator, researcher, education planner and community activist spans the Caribbean, the UK, the USA, Hong Kong and Australia. A Rockefeller Fellow, her publications include analysis of education for development and decolonisation, of race relations in schools and texts and of intercultural and postcolonial approaches. She co-edits a book series and an online journal focusing on postcolonial studies in education. She is past president of several scholarly associations including the World Council of Comparative Education Societies and the British Association for International and Comparative Education.

Jane Knight, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, focuses her research on the international dimension of higher education at the institutional, national, regional and international levels. Her work in over 65 countries with universities, governments and UN agencies helps to bring a comparative, development and international perspective to her research, teaching and policy work. She is the author of numerous publications on internationalisation concepts and strategies, quality assurance, institutional management, trade, education hubs and crossborder education. She is the co-founder of the African Network for Internationalization of Education and sits on the advisory boards of several international organisations, universities and journals. In 2010 the University of Exeter awarded her an Honorary LLD, in 2011 she was the recipient of the Outstanding Researcher Award from the European Association for Institutional Research and in 2013 she was awarded the Gilbert Medal from Universitas 21for her contribution to higher education internationalisation.

Andrea Kottmann is a Senior Researcher at the Center for Higher Education Policy Studies at the University of Twente in the Netherlands. In her work she has been specialising on the evaluation of fellowship or funding programmes for postgraduate education. Andrea has also been doing research on the development of higher education professionals in teaching and learning in European universities. Currently she is involved in research on the reform of doctoral training across Europe. In addition she is interested in the later careers of the highly qualified and their transitions to the labour market.

Lisa Loberg is Director of Study Abroad and a senior lecturer of French at California Lutheran University, where she has overseen the creation of a study abroad centre and the expansion of international programmes and partnerships. She serves on the advisory board for the American Institute for Foreign Study and International Studies Abroad, and is a founding member of the Lessons From Abroad organisation, which provides programming and resources for study abroad returnees. She received her EdD from the University of California, Los Angeles and her MA in French from Boston College.

Simon Marginson is Professor of International Higher Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, UK, where he has worked since October 2013. Previously he worked as Professor of Higher Education at the University of Melbourne, Australia (2006-13). He is joint editor-in-chief of the journal Higher Education and a commissioning editor for Thesis Eleven. A widely published and cited scholar, he focuses primarily on globalisation and comparative and international higher education, including international students, the effects of university ranking systems, policy approaches to STEM, and higher education and science in East Asia. His current research includes a comparison of the ‘public good’ or social role of universities in seven countries. His books include Markets in Education (1997), the co-authored The Enterprise University (2000), Global Creation (2010), Imagination (2010), International Student Security (2010) and edited and co-edited Prospects of Higher Education (2007), Handbook of Higher Education and Globalization (2011), Higher Education in the Asia-Pacific (2011), Tertiary Education Policy in Australia (2013) and The Dawkins Revolution 25 Years on (2013).

Cynthia Miller-Idriss is Associate Professor and Program Director of the International Training and Education Program at American University and is also a research associate at the Social Science Research Council in New York. A sociologist by training, Miller-Idriss works on nationalism and extremism in contemporary Europe and on the internationalisation of higher education in the United States. Prior to her arrival at American University in 2013, she spent 10 years on the faculty at New York University and is in residence in 2013 14 at the Morphomata Center for Advanced Studies at the Universität zu Köln.

Thomas Nørgaard received a DPhil in philosophy from Oxford in 2002. Since then he has been a faculty member at the European College of Liberal Arts (ECLA), now Bard College Berlin. For a decade he was also a part of ECLA’s administration, first as Programme Director, then as Co-Dean of the College and Academic Affairs/Managing Director. In 2013 14, he will be a Visiting Professor at the Artes Liberales Faculty at Warsaw University and a Research Fellow at the Remarque Institute at New York University. His primary interests are ethics, value theory and the philosophy of education. He is currently working on a book about liberal education in Europe.

Anthony C. Ogden is Executive Director of Education Abroad and Exchanges and an adjunct Assistant Professor in Educational Policy and Evaluation Studies at the University of Kentucky. Ogden earned his Bachelor’s degree from Berea College and his Master’s degree in international and intercultural management at the SIT Graduate Institute. He completed his PhD at Pennsylvania State University in educational theory and policy with a dual title in comparative and international education. A career international educator, Ogden’s research interests and scholarly work have focused on education abroad outcomes assessment, global citizenship and academic development.

Justin J.W. Powell, PhD, Freie Universität Berlin, is Professor of Sociology of Education at the University of Luxembourg. His main fields of interest are sociology of education, special and inclusive education, higher education and science systems, social inequality and disability studies. Recent publications include Barriers to Inclusion: special education in the United States and Germany (Paradigm Publishers, 2011), Soziale Ungleichheit: Klassische Texte zur Sozial-strukturanalyse (Campus Verlag, 2009; co-edited with Heike Solga & Peter A. Berger) and Comparing Special Education: origins to contemporary paradoxes (Stanford University Press, 2011; co-authored with John G. Richardson), which received an AERA Outstanding Book Award (2012).

Val D. Rust is Professor of Education at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). He received his PhD from the University of Michigan in education studies. He recently served as the faculty chair of the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies and served for many years as the Director of the International Education Office at UCLA, which houses the Education Abroad Program, the Travel Study Program, non-University of California study abroad providers and other student exchange programmes. He is also Director of the Center for International and Development Education in the Department of Education, which deals extensively with higher educational mapping around the world, international educational leadership and teacher training.

Bernhard Streitwieser is an International Research Fellow of Northwestern University’s Center for Advancing Learning and Teaching. From 2010 13 he was a Visiting Professor at Berlin’s Humboldt Universität and served as acting co-chair for the Department of Comparative Education in 2012 13 and lectured on the internationalisation of higher education, student identity development and global mobility. From 2010 14 he conducted a study on the Erasmus Mobility Programme and student identity development, which was funded by grants from the Fulbright Commission and the German Academic Exchange Service. In 2012 he guest-edited a special issue (Volume 7) on comparative education and educational mobility for the journal Research in International and Comparative Education, and his publications have appeared in books by Routledge, Teachers College Press, Symposium Books and Schneider Verlag and in The International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education; Research in International and Comparative Education; Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning; European Education; Educational Research & Evaluation; the American Journal of Evaluation; and the Journal of Innovative Higher Education.

Bernd Wächter is the Chief Executive Officer of ACA, a think-tank on European and international higher education focusing on internationalisation. Together with the Board of ACA, Bernd is in charge of setting the policy directions of ACA. He is also in charge of ACA’s research agenda.

Anthony Welch is Professor of Education at the University of Sydney. He has substantial national and international project experience, and has published widely on themes such as multiculturalism, schooling and work, indigenous minorities, international students, higher education and the academic profession, and the internationalisation of (higher) education. With an MA and PhD from the University of London, he has significant experience in working abroad, including having taught and/or researched at universities in the USA, Japan, Germany, China and Vietnam. He speaks, reads and writes German, holds a Visiting Professor position at Tianjin University, China, and is author and editor of 10 books, and around 200 articles and chapters. He is currently part of an international team conducting the Comprehensive Education Sector Review for the Ministry of Education, Myanmar.

Zachary Van Winkle is a master’s student in the social sciences at Berlin’s Humboldt University and works as a student employee at the Institute for Social Sciences (Department of Empirical Social Research and the Department of Demography).
 

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